Abstract

This paper describes ongoing work by the authors and presents recent developments in the field of GIS on the WWW. Particular attention is given to web-based spatial decision support systems and their role in improving public access to environmental data and involvement in decision making. Thoughts are presented on likely future developments in this fast moving area of GIS research.

1. GIS on the WWW

The rise of the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) has created many opportunities for those involved in GIS and decision support research. In the last couple of years, many GIS have appeared on the web giving the general public access to both systems and data. With this increased availability, previous criticism of GIS as an elitist technology (Pickles, 1995) may no longer be valid. We are now beginning to witness the popularising of GIS, at least within IT user circles. However, most GIS on the web are merely demonstrations using sample data that, in the majority of cases, are not problem specific and may be of only passing interest to the client. Expertise may also be lacking on the part of the client preventing them from making full use of the system, while the delivery medium itself may not be wholly appropriate for public use. Furthermore, very few web-based systems allow the user to populate the data space with new data.

Adopting some of the principles of GIS-based Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS) (Armstrong & Densham, 1990) when considering the use of GIS on the WWW, may indicate the way forward in this respect. Like SDSS, web-based public GIS should be problem specific and combine analytical models and data in such a manner as to allow the client to easily explore the decision space in an iterative and recursive style without requiring too much prior knowledge of the system being used. User-friendly interfaces based around common browser formats are the key here. Systems should be focused on particular problems that target an enthused and finite audience. The two basic aims of such systems are that they should:

• foster collaboration and participation between groups and individuals with an interest in the decision problem; and
• generate consensus and/or compromise decisions through shared responsibility in the decision making process.

In most democratic societies, public involvement in decision making rises little above the right to object. Web-based SDSS should act towards moving public involvement in decision making further up the public participation ladder as described by Weidemann and Femers (1993).

Figure 1. The public participation ladder (adapted from Weidemann and Femers, 1993)

2. Virtual Decision Making Environments

The kind of web-based collaborative and participatory SDSS described here can be termed Virtual Decision Making Environments (VDMEs). These are based broadly around the ideas of Computer Supported Collaborative Working (CSCW) and Computer Supported Real Life (CSRL). Encapsulated within vehicles for interaction between groups of individuals, such as virtual 'chat' rooms, it is possible to create virtual spaces that enable participants (client) to:

1. explore the decision problem;
2. experiment with choice alternatives; and
3. formulate one or more decision choices.

Exploration of the decision problem is an essential part of the client's learning process. Having direct and easy access to the information relating to a decision problem is a key element in learning about its various facets. In this context, information should be available on the spatial and aspatial aspects of the decision problem. These are likely to take the form of maps and other forms of spatial data (aerial photographs, satellite images, etc.) as well as other multimedia such as text, sound, images and video. These should work together to convey the historical and policy context of the decision problem as well its physical, social, cultural and economic setting. Existing community and individual ideas and/or perspectives on the decision problem should be presented where known. Through learning about all aspects of a decision problem, the client should begin to modify existing ideas and generate new ones. These can be fed back into the information space as and when appropriate.

2.2 Experimentation

Experimentation with choice alternatives is another essential part of the learning process. Feasible solution alternatives can be identified and fed into the decision space, while unfeasible or conflict generating alternatives discarded. This "What if?" approach is fundamental to many exploratory analyses in GIS. As such systems should allow clients to:

1. test basic theories/hypotheses regarding their decision alternatives;
2. develop decision models and/or pathways applicable to the decision problem; and
3. approach consensus and/or compromise through comparision and trade-off with other users' ideas.

Formulation of decision choices should aim to maximise consensus and minimise conflict. In this manner it may be possible to identify the best compromise solution. Communication and feedback to all clients is essential at this stage (and throughout the decision process) to inform clients how and why particular decision choice alternatives have been identified. Maximising consensus throughout the decision process will help maximise the acceptability of final decision and so minimise any adverse reaction.

3. Recent developments on the web

Web-based SDSS are starting to appear on the Internet. A couple of notable examples are the East St.Louis Action Research Project (ESLARP) and the Geographic Mediation System (GeoMed). ESLARP is a local participatory planning system. This incorporates the GIS-based East St.Louis Geographic Retrieval System (EGRETS) which provides users with a gateway to geographic information about the city for use in planning decisions. The GeoMed service is aimed at:

"improving ways to distribute heterogeneous geographical information and Geographical Information Systems. The main goal of the project is to make geographical information more accessible and affordable and to help open and democratise public policy and planning procedures. This will improve the quality and acceptability of decisions and reduce the considerable expense of unnecessary delay and legal conflicts. GeoMed will integrate services for creating, distributing and using geographical information in the sectors of urban planning, public administration and environmental protection." (GeoMed, 1996)

One example developed by the authors is the Open Spatial Decision Making (OSDM) web-site (Carver et al., 1996; 1997). This is an information system and GIS-based SDSS focusing on the controversial problem of where to dispose of nuclear waste in Britain. Selected pages and images from this web-site are shown in figure 2. The systems uses spatial datasets and spatial analytical tools to help users explore the decision problem and develop informed personal siting decisions. The basic objectives behind the development of the system are to experiment with web design for SDSS, inform the public about a particular spatial decision problem and study the effects of locality, scale and social context on decisions made.

Figure 2. Selected pages and images from the OSDM web pages

Source: http://www.ccg.leeds.ac.uk/mce/mce-home.htm

3.1 Experimental objectives

The experimental objective of the OSDM system is to investigate potential of web-based VDMEs for improving public understanding of and participation in important environmental decisions. It is recognised that systems will need to cope with a range of spatial scales from local to global and need to adopt multi-level adaptive access to allow easy access to information and tools to a wide spectrum of people from different backgrounds. The system needs to be able to cope with a high level of spatiality in the data contained and therefore requires a GIS engine for data handling and analysis.

3.2 Provision of information

One of the key aims of the OSDM system is to provide the public with access to appropriate environmental datasets and analytical tools to enable informed personal decisions to be made about a difficult spatial problem. This functionality is provided by a simple GIS engine and multi-criteria decision tools. The browser interface and web-page layout and links provide the user with a semi-structured decision path by which to explore the decision problem and experiment with the potential solutions. Key to this is the ability to visualise and understand the relevant spatial and aspatial factors through the use of a hypertext information system and map images linked to associated metadata. Exploration of the decision space leads to experimentation with the data using the tools provided and ultimately to one or more potential decision solutions.

3.3 Science

Certain scientific objectives underpin the OSDM system. These are to gain specific insights into how users perceive spatial decision problems and to determine the manner in which the characteristics of the individual may influence the decisions made. This is being done through the analysis of logged decision trees and user profiling. The layout of the web-pages first gets the user to specify their 'best' guess location for a nuclear waste repository based on existing knowledge and perceptions of the problem. This is then compared to their final choice(s) to determine the spatial effect of information, exploration and experimentation on subsequent decisions. Cross-referencing with user profile information will enable the effects of location, scale and social context on decision making behaviour to be investigated.

4. VDME architectures

VDME architectures designed for this kind of participatory and collaborative decision making process comprise three essential elements:

• virtual spaces for interaction;
• user-centred adaptive interfaces; and
• access to relevant information.

The virtual spaces for interaction should include both private and open group discussion 'rooms' where users can interact by sharing ideas, exchanging views and contributing information. These can support both active and passive modes of participation in the form of 'speakers' and 'listeners'. One of the advantages of VDMEs in this context is that public planning meetings tend to be dominated by a few individuals with particularly strong views. The availability of virtual spaces may encourage a wider response from the audience by removing social barriers to participation.

4.2 User-centred adaptive interfaces

User-centred adaptive interfaces are essential if VDME are to be accessible to the whole population. It is recognised that the level of education, profession, age and social background will affect the level of understanding of a problem and user interfaces need to take this into account. Initial user profiling and subsequent user feedback can help indicate the most appropriate level of language and technical complexity incorporated within the interface, information system and decision support elements of the system. With highly spatial decision problems, the most appropriate interface may be the map itself. This gives rise to the concept of 'territory as interface'.

4.3 Access to information

Access to relevant information is essential, without it the decision problem cannot adequately be addressed. This may be a problem for certain types of decisions or geographical locations where data is scarce. However, data alone is also not enough. Spatial and aspatial data should conform to minimum standards regarding its use and format. These include:

• use of data model and formats appropriate to the decision problem;
• use of spatial scales and resolution appropriate to the decision problem;
• provision of detailed metadata and lineage describing the dataset, its source and method of compilation; and
• use of appropriate methods of visualisation, integration, analysis and interpretation.

Use of intelligent spatial agents may be important in ensuring new users and those unfamiliar with spatial science and GIS do not use inappropriate datasets and/or analyses. It is recognised that the community of users do themselves represent a potentially vast source of local information, both spatial and aspatial. For this reason VDME architectures should enable the community to further populate the decision space with their own information. This gives rise to the concept of the 'community as database'. Clearly, this is important, but does need to be carefully monitored to ensure security is not breached and that the property rights of the contributing parties is safe guarded.

5. Current and future developments

The research currently being undertaken as part of the ESRC's Virtual Society? programme aims to critically examine the role of GIS and the WWW in enhancing current decision-making processes and infrastructures. In particular, the research will focus on what role GIS and the WWW will play in improving public participation in environmental decision making. Specific objectives in addressing these aims are:

• build on existing work in developing the ideas and theory of participatory decision making and cyber-democracy with specific reference to the potential role of GIS-based VDME's on the WWW;
• develop example prototype GIS-based VDME's on the WWW using real environmental decision problems covering different spatial scales, locational settings and social/institutional contexts;
• conduct extensive on-line experiments using prototype VDME's to analyse user responses, evaluate the potential of these systems in democratising the decision making process and assist in the development of new theory in participatory decision making;

Three case study scenarios are being undertaken in this on-going research project at the local, regional and national level.

5.1 Virtual Slaithwaite

On a local scale a small community in the Colne Valley in the West Yorkshire District of Kirklees is being used to test on-line public participation in a 'Planning For Real' exercise. A 2km2 area of land centred on the village of Slaithwaite is currently the focus of a community led consultation process which aims to examine the sustainable environmental regeneration of the village and the wider community within the Colne Valley. The idea behind the Planning For Real Initiative is to involve the local community in planning the future regeneration of their village. This is being co-ordinated by the Colne Valley Trust (CVT) who are working in partnership with Kirklees Council to develop a strategy for the village and its community.

Figure 3. The Virtual Slaithwaite Java map interface

Source: http://www.ccg.leeds.ac.uk/slaithwaite

The Planning For Real Initiative has involved building a 3D physical model of the area allowing local people to identify issues and problems and put forward suggestions in an attempt to bring about improvements to their local community. The Planning For Real Initiative provides this research project with an ideal opportunity to test out new methods of public participation by running a parallel initiative over the WWW. Using the same 2km2 area of land centred around Slaithwaite the project has developed a virtual model of the village which allows the local community to interact with a GIS model giving them instant access data and tools with which to make spatial queries and enter their own attribute information in the form of suggested planning actions. The map interface is powered by GeoTools. This is a set of Java-based mapping tools developed at the University of Leeds. The map browser interface is shown in figure 3.

5.2 Yorkshire Dales Online Reforestation Project

The second case study covers a much larger area in Yorkshire and Cumbria. The Yorkshire Dales National Park represents a more regional/strategic type of scenario which involves more than just local communities of people living within the park itself but a wider set of actors and stakeholders including tourists and visitors to the area.

Currently the park authorities propose a 50% increase in natural forest cover in the national park. This is in line with Government policy for all National Parks. Users of the VDME in this case study will be able to obtain an overview of the proposals through the examination of land use and terrain maps. These will show the location of existing woodland, location of former woodlands, relationships to existing land use patterns, visualisation of alternative reforestation plans and the evaluation of known or hypothesised impacts. When the VDME prototype is up and running users will be in a position to generate new reforestation plans or identify exclusion zones where other land uses have priority. Once individual decisions have been made users of the system will have the ability to place their decision maps in an online map depository where they can be viewed in the contexts of other user's maps and those generated by the National Park Authority. This will help define areas of conflict and identify consensus through the employment of compromise mapping techniques such as multi-criteria evaluation. One example is the ability of the virtual system to anticipate and model the visual impacts on the landscape over various timescales. This will provide interested parties with the ability to gain an insight into what the reforestation plans may look like after specified years of tree growth.

5.3 Radioactive waste disposal

The third case study is based around the re-development of the OSDM system described above. This is currently being updated and developed further in line with the two previous case studies to provide a complete three tier approach to the use of VDME's at local, regional and national scales. This work is being carried out in close collaboration with UK Nirex Ltd., the organisation responsible for finding a safe disposal route for radioactive wastes in the UK.

6. Conclusions

This paper has described how the rise of the Internet and the WWW has created opportunities to increase public participation in environmental decision-making by providing Web based GIS. Some examples of how geographic information can be made available to the general public by using the Internet and the WWW have been described. Several of these systems have been highlighted in this paper to illustrate how this has become possible over the past few years together with an introduction to how these systems maybe developed to become more collaborative in nature.

It needs to be recognised that access to the WWW is still relatively limited although the potential for increased access appears to becoming a reality. The provision of public access points in council offices, libraries and community centres etc. are likely to overcome these concerns. Other concerns abound, including those relating to validation of responses, public understanding of issues, political intransigence, public apathy and antipathy, possibilities for system bias and (mis)trust. For a more detailed discussion of these and other practical and ethic concerns see Carver et al. (1996).

GIS on the WWW provides a platform for more general use of a technology which to the unskilled user otherwise appears as an unfriendly medium. The types of systems being developed in research being undertaken by the authors hides the complexity of the GIS behind friendly, easy to use GUI's while still retaining the ability to build up several scenarios or proposals based on particular decision choices made by the individual. This paper has argued that providing open access to particular decision-making problems over the WWW will play an increasing role in the way future environmental proposals and decisions are made. The practical development and testing of these systems will help direct the future of public participation in environmental decision-making by using GIS on the WWW.

References

Armstrong, M.P. & Densham, P.J. (1990) Database organization strategies for spatial decision support systems. in International Journal of Geographical Information Systems. 4(1), 3-20.

Carver, S., Blake, M., Turton, I. & Duke-Williams, O. (1997) Open spatial decision making: evaluating the potential of the World Wide Web. in K.Kemp (ed) Innovations in GIS 4. Taylor & Francis, London. 267-278.

Carver, S., Blake, M., Turton, I. & Duke-Williams, O. (1996) Where to dispose of Britain's Nuclear Waste: Open Spatial Decision Making on the Internet. http://www.ccg.leeds.ac.uk/mce/mce-home.htm

East St.Louis Action Research Project - ESLARP (1996) http://www.imlab9.landarch.uiuc.edu/~eslarp/contents/main.html

Geographical Mediation System - GeoMed (1996) http://www.pisa.intecs.it/projects/GeoMed

Pickles, A. (1995) (ed) Ground Truth: the social implications of geographic information systems. Guildford Press, New York.

Wiedemann, I and Femers, S. (1993) Public participation in waste management decision making: analysis and management of conflicts. in Journal of Hazardous Materials. 33, 355-368.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the Economic and Social Research Council in providing funding for this research through the Virtual Society? Research Programme. We also wish to thank the School of Geography, University of Leeds and particularly James Macgill for technical assistance.